The Dark Ages of Europe refers to the period following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. During this time, centralized political authority weakened, cities declined, and long-distance trade networks were disrupted. Many regions experienced frequent wars, population shifts, and the rise of new kingdoms formed by Germanic tribes such as the Goths, Franks, and Vandals. Literacy and classical learning became more limited compared to the Roman era, and much knowledge was preserved mainly within monasteries and religious institutions. Because of these changes, earlier historians described this period as a time of cultural and economic decline.